The Korean conflict of 1950 to 1953 Essay Example for Free

The Korean conflict of 1950 to 1953 Essay To what extent was the Korean conflict of 1950 to 1953 a turning point in the Cold War? The beginnings of the Cold War, the period between 1945 and 1949, were fraught with a mutual tension and distrust sustained chiefly by the bold, economically expansionist policies of the USA and the defensive, albeit retaliatory, responses of the Soviet Union. Until 1950, America had relied upon her own currency in curtailing what she perceived as the spread of communist influence. The start of the Korean War, however, saw the revampment of American policy and the globalisation, as well as the exacerbation, of the existing superpower tension. As such, to a large extent, the Korean conflict was a departure from previous trends in the American-Soviet conflict. In reaffirmation of my stand is the fact that the battlefield had expanded beyond the borders of continental Europe into the environmentally hostile regions of Korea, and that the participants of this new Cold War were no longer confined to the superpowers themselves. At the same time, though only to a slight degree, the Korean War was still reminiscent of the old, European Cold War, as manifested by Trumans citing of the Domino Theory in the face of an invasion of South Korea by the communist North, a typical instance of American failure to fully grasp the situation with which they are dealing. Of foremost importance to the turning point of the superpower enmity is the implementation of NSC 68. As aforementioned, before the conflict extended to Asia, the USA had capitalised upon its financial power by channelling economic aid to client states in combating Soviet communism. This policy of economic expansion was no longer adhered to in Korea, as demonstrated by the NSC 68 which marked the militarisation of the Cold War in essence. Under internal pressure, the Truman administration propounded an expansion of American military forces and atomic stockpile, as well as the hastened development of a thermonuclear bomb to remain a step ahead of the Soviets in the nuclear field. This new policy of rollback is evident from the period of 1950 to 1953, during which the USA had increased its military output sevenfold and was in a state of preparedness for war. Believing in the necessity for the US military to outnumber or be on par with the large Soviet army in terms of number, Truman advocated an increase in military spending and managed to extract billions of dollars from Congress to be spent on the expansion of American armed forces, the rendering of military succour to potential allies, and the development of the hydrogen bomb. The presidents belief in the importance of armed and nuclear supremacy also resonated with Washington as a whole. In addition, in response to North Korean invasion of the democratic South, Truman had called for international involvement in the regional conflict in forming an attack force consisting of the South Korean army, as well as contingents from fifteen other countries not including America herself. The expansion of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was also a deviation from American action in post-war Europe. NATO was immediately given a larger secretariat and a more unified command structure. A total of four US divisions were sent to Europe to act as reinforcements and, in 1951, the organisation was enlarged to accommodate new members, namely Turkey and Greece. Acting opportunistically to threaten the USSR, the USA had made use of Turkey, which lay in close proximity with Soviet Russia, as a military base on which American Jupiter missiles could be established. Due to the excellent geographical location of Turkey, these missiles could be aimed and fired at the Soviet Union, and acted as a deterrence against the Soviet invasion of Middle Eastern oilfields. To strengthen NATO and assist its member allies, the USA had been in favour of an increase in military spending and had channelled economic aid to its allies. Previously, in 1949, before the superpower conflict expanded beyond its regional borders, the organisation was set up with only the intention of acting as a disincentive against a communist attack on the capitalist West. While it was still meant to deter potential communist aggression, the new, expanded NATO had also posed a direct military threat to the Soviets, as demonstrated by the placing of US Jupiter Missiles in Turkey and American exhortation of increasing military spending, and had thus contributed to the militarisation of the conflict as a whole. American advocacy for West German rearmament and sovereignty differed significantly from earlier policy as well. In the past, after German defeat in World War II, the USA had feared the recrudescence of German aggression. With the outbreak of the Korean War, however, the fear of a revived Germany was transcended by an intense paranoia of communist expansion. The rearmament and procurement of full-fledged independence of West Germany was deemed a necessity as a result; the resurrection of Russias former wartime adversary would rekindle old fears of German expansion and deter Soviet aggression. After the occurrence of war in Korea, in hopes of putting up a stronger attack front against the Soviets, the USA had begun to favour the idea of West German rearmament, which the French strongly opposed. Ultimately, to dispell French fears, the USA agreed to the French Pleven Plan to allow West Germany to be part of a European Defence Community. This, however, was met with disapproval from the Germans, most of whom were opposed to the idea of military rearmament and preferred instead to be independent of foreign control. Seeing as how the political and economic reconstruction of West Germany was a long-term goal, the USA agreed to remove all occupation controls and grant Germany full statehood. The Korean War was indubitably a turning point in the Cold War, as seen in the fact that its occurrence galvanised the Americans to rearm and grant independence to Germany, something that would previously have been regarded with doubt and apprehension. American signing of the ANZUS pact and recognition of Japan as a post-war ally varied from previous policy too. Like in the case of Germany, the USA had erstwhile been wary of future Japanese expansion and was not likely to grant Japan freedom from foreign supervision. The Korean War had changed American attitude entirely and had accelerated the political and economic recovery of Japan, which was confirmed in the signing of the San Francisco peace treaty in 1951. The treaty restored Japanese sovereignty and ended American occupation in Japan in the following year. In exchange for independence, Japan had to sign a Mutual Security Agreement, under which the Japanese islands were to act as a breakwater against the currents of communist expansion. The USA had also signed the ANZUS pact with New Zealand and Australia and, in so doing, agreed to defend Asia and Australia from Japanese aggression. In return, the two countries would assist in the deterrence of communist expansion in the Pacific. Similarly in the case of Germany, Japan would not have received its sovereignty if it were not for the Korean War, especially since the granting of Japanese independence might have been at the expense of the security of Australasia. American policy in Southeast Asia revealed the sudden central importance of the continent to the USA and this, in itself, was another departure from existing Cold War trends. In the early years prior to the start of war in Korea, the scope to which American policy functioned was limited only to continental Europe and parts of the Middle East. However, with the globalisation of the conflict, American operations in favour of confining the spectre of communist influence within the sphere from which it originated spanned from Europe to Asia. The USA provided relentless economic and military support to the French in their war with the Vietminh led by communist Ho, whom the Americans viewed as an agent of the Kremlin. In American eyes, both the non-communist countries of Southeast Asia and Japan were of pivotal significance in guaranteeing prosperity and hence freedom from communist influence. Before 1950, American intervention in communist acivities were confined only to Europe. However, with the outbreak of war in Korea, the scope of its policy had extended across the oceans to a foreign continent. This is revelatory of the far-reaching impacts of the Korean War on the superpower conflict. To an extent of lesser significance, however, the Korean War was an affirmation of the trends of the European Cold War. For instance, the USA had intervened in the regional conflict thinking that North Korean crossing of the 38th parallel was premeditated by Stalin. Such misrepresentations of global communist activities as being a result of the sole manipulation of the Soviet leader, and not the local leaders themselves, are a quintessence of American paranoia and oversight. Truman had also misread the situations in Greece and Turkey, unwavering in his erroneous view of communism as inherently monolithic. Trumans misunderstanding of the situation in Korea was further reinforced by his citing of the Domino theory in response to the North Korean invasion. The president stated that Asia would fall to Soviet communism should there be no action taken by America. As can be seen from this misinterpretation that was so typical of the irrational fear of the USA, the conflict in Korea does prove to be a confirmation of Cold War trends that were already in existence in post-war Europe. American response to the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China was another typical instance of the trends of the Cold War before 1953. On a basis of reasoning that was largely gratuitous by nature, Truman surmised that the Chinese communists were agents of Moscow sent by Stalin to communise the Asian periphery, referring to the communist takeover as the fall of China. America had responded ambivalently to the formation of the Chinese Communist Party, outwardly declaring the formation of diplomatic relations with the new regime, yet ordering the cessation of economic aid to Chiang Kai Shek. Hence it would seem that Truman had not only inherited Roosevelts title as president of America but also his intrinsic uncertainty and diplomatic ambiguity displayed at Yalta in 1945. Trumans ambiguous response to the fall of China reflected an inconsistency in American policy that was already exhibited earlier in the days when the Cold War was confined only to continental Europe. Even so, the events in Korea from 1950 to 1953 largely marked a turning point in the Cold War. This is seen in the extent of change in American policy thereafter, as well as the fact of international involvement in the conflict. Though only regional by nature, the Korean War had had far-reaching effects on foreign politics, like those of Japan and Germany, playing a major role in influencing American decision to grant full-fledged independence to these countries. Also, the Korean War marked the globalisation of what was once a regional conflict, as well as a departure from earlier American policy, from the provision of economic succour to the building up of armed forces and military and nuclear arsenal. As such, to a large extent, the Korean War was a turning point for the superpower enmity.

Design And Build Procurement

Design And Build Procurement In this chapter, the definitions of Design and Build procurement including its concept and characteristics will be revealed. The success factors of using Design and Build procurement and the major task of developing the projects scope of work will be covered in great detail in this chapter. The definitive performance criteria of a project specifically in major aspects of time, cost and quality will deeply explained. The chapter then moves forward to the affect of features of Design and Build on roles and responsibilities of the contractor within the process. The explanation on ways of the contractor proposes to achieve them. This chapter then also describes the implementation of Design and Build in Malaysia accordingly to its history performance and problems that have been occurred in Malaysia by using Design and Build procurement. 2.1 INTRODUCTION OF DESIGN AND BUILD PROCUREMENT It is clear that there are many different variables to take into account when selecting the procurement method for our project. It is quite difficult due to each procurement methods differ from each other in unique ways. The key on making decisions on choosing the right procurement method is that each differs from the other on its own basis. Thus, it takes a few key questions to help decide which one should be use. The flow chart below shows the key questions and decisions on which procurement method should be used. The process of building procurement involves a series of different specialists in contributing to the construction work at different times. Design and build procurement has been in use for a very long time for more than a decade in the twentieth century. It has become more widespread across United State as well as around the world and had found in many industries. From a survey of trends in methods of procurement that were carried out by RICS from Davis Langdon and Everest revealed that in 1984, 5.06% of construction projects were procured on a Design and Build basis. Added that by 1991, this had risen to 14.78% .Revealing proudly by the Contract Journal July 1994, that the Design and Build turnover of the United Kingdoms top 70 Design and Build contractors increased by 15% during the period 1992 to 1993. The growth in the use of Design and Build recently as a procurement route is seen as being such radical change that could allow the industry to develop cost radical change that allo w the industry to develop cost models that automatically can reflect the construction rather than design processes. It seems as the most logical way to procure a building and thus given a clean slate to start with. However, many design professionals and owners had feared that this would result in the minimization or even destruction of the designers responsibility. This procurement is said to be able to furnish a design that maximizes quality within the projects budgetary constraints. Numerous successfully completed Design and Build projects range from housing, through industrial and commercial projects, to major complexes. It proves that this procurement method has very wide applicability. Frequently, the Design and Build contractor would be asked to contract with the clients designers, so that there is some continuity of the design effort, but the remaining design work is the contractors responsibility. This involves formally transferring the designers contracts from the client to the builder which is called novation. 2.1.1 DEFINITIONS OF DESIGN AND BUILD PROCUREMENT Design and build procurement is a procurement where it combine the design and construction process under a single entity. Design and Build terms are taken from its strategy itself where it would entail the contractor to carry out the work; the design work as well as the construction and also the completion of the work. As according to Turner (1990) and Jansen (1991) has supported that design and build contractor is supplying the procurement option of buying a finished building. While according to Masterman (1992) the term Design and Build has almost been unanimously interpreted and defined as being an arrangement where one contracting organization takes sole responsibility, normally on a lump sum fixed price basis, for the bespoke design and construction of a clients project. he then elaborate that this contains three elements; the responsibility for design and construction, contractors reimbursement is generally by means of a fixed price lump sum and the project is designed and built specifically to meet the clients need. Furthermore, as according to David Cappell (1997), Design and Build place responsibility for both design and erection in the hands of the contractor one point of responsibility for everything. However, theres an existence of one common thread that all Design Build delivery systems share which would be a single point of responsibilities for both design and construction. In other definition, Design and Build can be said as arrangement where one organization design and construct to the firm orders of the client for a single financial transaction. In general, the definition of Design and Build can be summarized as providing a single point responsibility for the whole design and construction. Below is a chart to differentiate between Design and Build procurement with traditional procurement. (a) (b) Figure 2.2: (a) Single point responsibility Design and Build Procurement (b) Fragmented responsibility Traditional Procurement (Source: Bennett and Grice, 1992) 2.1.2 CONCEPT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DESIGN AND BUILD A basic concept in Design and Build procurement is that it requires the project to be contracted to a single organization which is responsible for design, procurement, and engineering and commissioning. The first step before choosing a procurement method should be through analysis of the projects characteristics on a global basis, including those technical requirements for design and construction. The projects owner will ensure that the entire context in which the project be delivered is thorough understood and can be accounted for in plans for schedule, price and quality. Once the owner has determined all the external constraints that might impact on its project, a project procurement method can be selected. There are quite many good reasons why an owner would select Design and Build for a given project. Theres a list of reasons for which an owner might decide that a project is suitable for the use of Design and Build procurement method. It would be: Where a compressed delivery schedule is required; A single point responsibility is required, Constructability consideration drive the design concept or details, Unique factors require special knowledge or experience to produce the least-cost design, The owner/designer must rely on the builder to optimize technology wit cost, The project will site-adapt a previous design, The project is a common commercial facility, The project is beyond the owners technical capability, Lastly, where risk can be shared to reduce cost. This can be supported by Masteman (2002), who argued that the definitions of the Design and Build contains three elements that would fundamental characteristics of this system, which are; the responsibility for design and construction lies with one organization, reimbursement is generally by means of a fixed price lump sum, and project is designed and built specifically to meet the needs of the client. 2.2 PERFORMANCE OF DESIGN AND BUILD An owner of a project would definitely want to obtain a building that satisfies his needs of good performance. The meaning of a good performance here require the project to form a high level of quality, of which including optimum economic price within the agreed time. Hashim (1996) concluded that the major factors tat affect the time and cost overruns would be; (1) the procurement systems adopted, (2) the variation works, (3) delay in subcontractors work, and lastly (4) shortage of building materials. She also provides her findings to prove the relation to the procurement systems used and their impact on time cost overruns. It is very crucial that the selection of the procurement method lies in the clients responsibility. Because of that, the selected procurement should; Meets the needs of the client, the type of project and the risks that might occur, can be handle by the client Related to the expertise available within the clients organization, resource and funding facility. Before the client decides which procurement method to be use, the relative importance of the three key criteria that need to be taken into account in procurement would be; time, cost and quality performance. TIME COST QUALITY The three criteria are inter-related. For instance, decisions affecting time will affect cost or both cost and performance. The key objective are exists to ensure that the clients objective are met effectively, efficiently and economically. 2.2.1 TIME Early completion of a project rather one of the most required by the client. Nevertheless, most construction project fails to achieve this requirement. Because of that the selection of procurement method to be use should be done wisely. This requirement of early completion can be achieved if construction starts before the design is completed. It can be said that the greater overlap between the construction and the design stage, the less time will be required to complete the project. However, the amount of variation is likely to increase because of this relation. Form the studies by University of Reading (United Kingdom) evaluate that the construction speed of design and build projects is 12% faster than traditional approaches and the overall project delivery speed (including design and construction) is 30% faster than traditional methods. Added that, the certainty of completion in time increases with the earlier the contractors involve in the design processes. 2.2.2 COST Lower cost of the construction project is another factor that is most important in ones employer requirement. The overlap between the design and construction means that construction starts before the cost is fixed, which will increase the uncertainty over the cost. This will drag the cost forecasting to become critical. Research had found out that time or cost have a real strong interactions between the design and build system. Also, from findings it stated that by combining the full overtime schedule, average ordering and also fast track construction with moderate crashing of design can made achieve towards improvements in both time and cost. By the researchers findings, it had stated that 75% of design and build project were completed within 5% of budget, compared with 63% of traditional projects. Design and build projects are at least 13% cheaper than traditionally procured projects. Greatest cost certainty is achieved for design and builds projects when the owners requirements are detailed. 2.2.3 QUALITY The issue of building quality is very important. From the facts, the quality performance characteristics determine the project time and cost. The performance of a project includes the function of the facility, its quality and appearance and durability, together with reliability and efficiency of the operation. The quality performance required from the completed facility is where it has the ability to control and make changes to the detailed specification after the contracts have been let. Design and build consistently better in meeting quality requirements for complex or innovative buildings rather than simple, standard, traditional buildings. 2.2.4 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CONTRACTOR The roles and responsibilities of each of the members of the project team should be considered carefully to avoid problems associated with assembling temporary teams of professionals. The contractors are responsible to; (1) undertake the design work outlined in contractors proposal which match with the employers requirements, (2) to fabricate the building, (3) to coordinate and integrate the entire process. The figure below shows the relationship of project team in design and build procurement. This contractual relationship in design and build is clearly shows that the contractor is responsible for everything. The design and build process increases the opportunities to use the contractors experience during the design stages of the project and their key strengths in management of the construction works. The extension of the contractors role design role is sometimes much less than the associated design responsibilities. The contractor then takes the responsibility for the design, without having any previous involvement with the design team. However, with the variability of types of construction projects and the experiences of clients in such projects, recent research had found that contractors may lack proper understanding of managing the varying types of design processes. The contractor must do whatever it takes to achieve the employers requirements. A single point responsibility means that the contractor is responsible for ensuring that the project is completed in time within the specified budget. Any delays beyond the control of the employer would be at the risk of the contractor. Other than that, the contractor also has to take into account the qualities that are agreed between the employers. Design and build contractors should understand the aesthetics or architecture value because the clients might not understand this kind of things. However, to ensure a contractor to produce what is specified by the client is not the same as ensuring the contractor producing a good and high quality building. 2.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF DESIGN AND BUILD PROCUREMENT IN MALAYSIA Construction activities occurred mostly on the more developed western side of peninsular Malaysia, which would be around KL. It began to gain importance in the economy in the 1990s through its roles in the areas of reconstruction and modernization. There are seven main elements of the processes of construction procurement considered to be specific to Malaysia. These seven elements are divided into two broad categories; (1) the processes during preconstruction stage, and (2) the processes during construction stage. The processes of construction procurement during preconstruction stage are: Initiation / promotion Funding Design schematic design, detailed design and specialist design. Statutory approval approval to initiate and to construct a facility and final approval to occupy the completed facility. Tendering The processes of construction procurement during construction stage are: Construction management and physical construction processes. Risk allocation The mostly used procurement are listed below in order of their importance that has been identified as the dominant procurement systems in Malaysia. Traditional lump sum system Design and build / turnkey system Management contracting 2.3.1 HISTORY AND BACKGROUND OF STUDY Design and build procurement was first launched in the Public Works Department by the Malaysian Prime Minister in 1983. The first unit that has applied the system would be by the Kuala Terengganu Hospital, which was completed in 1985. Research has shown that there is a continuous increase in the use of Design and Build over the last 24 years. The system use in Malaysia was pioneered by the JKR. In this system, there exist only two parties, i.e., the client and the contractor. In Malaysia, comprehensive data on the use of different types of procurement systems is not available. However, design and build is one of the procurement systems frequently used in Malaysia. 2.3.2 CONTRACTORS IN MALAYSIA The total goals of a project to significant cost savings, time savings and better quality can be achieve in considering the contractors construction experience in earlier construction phases. Since the system of design and build become successfully growing in recent years, many contractors are successfully operate in this market and they bring appropriate skills to bare in regard to the management and co-ordination of the overall process. However, the studies from Nima, M.A. M.R. Abdul-Kadir et al. (2001) also Rosli M.Z. (2004) show a shortage of knowledge among Malaysian contractors. They added that, a contractor have a supreme position in developing the constructability issue in different stages of construction projects which decreases probability of stoppages, delays and contract modifications. Any contribution from construction players in early stages of project can supply a useful guidance to bring deconstruction rules to design phase (Herman et al., 2003). The issue in this country is where the construction contractors are not invited to participate in design activities, before the design reaches to end. This will reduce their ability to influence the project specification finally. Other researches had state that different sources of knowledge has emphasized on importance of design phase and decisions that can make tremendous changes in the project output (BCA, 2005; Construction Industry Review Committee, 2001; Galvinich, 1995; Gray Hughes, 2001; Nima et al., 2002; Unlik Lones, 1998). The more integration will result in greater amount of cost savings, labor savings and also less substance wastage. The design itself can lead the contractors to choose a better construction method which helps to an improved constructability. In addition, the contractors can use their construction experience to help the designers in better designs, then they can try to increase the flexibility of the project to avoid any later design modifications that requires more money injections to the projects (Lam et al., 2007). 2.3.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES IN DESIGN AND BUILD Ndekugri Turner (1994) suggests that by using design and build can provide better value for money and can give rise to fewer disputes than other procurement methods. One of the key advantage by using design and build is the opportunity to integrate the design and construction components. Argues by Saxon (2000) include that design and construction offers better performance in time and costs and results in lesser defects. The main advantages of design and build system that are obviously shown include: Single point responsibility for both design and construction processes Price is fixed in advance of construction Overlapping of design and construction process (in contrast to the traditional system) The design and build contractor could incorporate the concept of buildability into the design which in turn would facilitate speedier and economical construction production. However, implementing design and build procurement also have the cons that need to be aware of. Its disadvantages are: Unclear client brief (Ho et al., 1996; Chan, 1997; Ernzan Schexnayder,2000) Lack of standard forms of contract (Ho et al., 1996; Gunning McDermott, 1997) Inadequate and insufficient information and coordination among parties (Ndekugri Church, 1996; Ho et al., 1996) Late design changes (Gunning McDermott, 1997; Chan, 1997). The projects costs could be higher than the traditional system Projects often lacks of aesthetic values The system is not very accommodative to changes Other than that, Smith (1992) stated some of his research of design and build difficulties that may have to be faced: Contractor dominated by staff who are unfamiliar with the design process Inadequate fee quoted for design services by consultants Contractors operational staff too busy to consider design issues Contractors lacks expertise to manage the design interface between consultants and subcontract designers Contractor leaves subcontractors to co-ordinate work amongst themselves 2.4 CONCLUSION Alternative project system or delivery is gaining popularity towards Malaysia and outside countries. From this literature, we can see that the implementation of design and build in Malaysia proven to be one of the successfully delivering method in an expeditious manner without sacrificing quality or economy. As for the contractors in Malaysia, the lack of knowledge can become the main reason to the unsuccessful of design and build delivery. Other than that, design and build seems the most appropriate delivery method that can improve ones project performance. DRAFT OF CHAPTERS CHAPTER 1 ABSTRACT CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS (CONTRACTORS VIEW ON DB) CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS (DB ACHIEVEMENT) CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION TABLE OF CONTENT CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 INTRODUCTION 2.1 INTRODUCTION OF DESIGN AND BUILD PROCUREMENT 2.1.1 Definitions of Design and Build Procurement 2.1.2 Concept and Characteristics of Design and Build Procurement 2.2 PERFORMANCE OF DESIGN AND BUILD 2.2.1 Time 2.2.2 Cost 2.2.3 Quality 2.2.4 Roles and Responsibilities of the Contractor 2.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF DESIGN AND BUILD PROCUREMENT IN MALAYSIA 2.3.1 History and Background of Study 2.3.2 Contractors in Malaysia 2.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Design and Build 2.4 CONCLUSION

Physical Education in Schools Essay examples -- Education, Teaching, P

Historical Context The purpose and approach to teaching and classroom management has considerably changed due to a variety of factors including government policies, developing research and scientific explanations for its benefits to children during their education (Lance et al, 2007). Mackenzie (2004) recalls on how in the Havoverian Period (1714-1790) play and sport, particularly in the education environment was largely ignored by the government. This lead to minimised use of it and Physical Education (PE) was a very irregular activity in schools. (Lance et al, 2007; Mackenzie, 2004). However, progressively school sport and activities within the teaching environment were developing (Mackenzie, 2004 [online]). Public schools became highly involved in competitive sporting events, and by 1940 school sport was being used as exercise with ‘creative physical training’ known for its multiple physical and mental benefits for the participant. Statutory expectations and overviews began to arise in the early 1900’s with a strong emphasis on the relationship between sporting skills, exercise and health benefits. The 1909 Syllabus of Physical Exercises (Board of Education, 1909) suggested that the educational benefits of Physical Education and School Sport were primarily moral and mental. Bailey et al (2006) states that this is the first indication of sport and exercise supporting the children in holistic ways. The 1909 syllabus explains that the moral benefits of exercise were improved behaviour and social skills, and the mental benefits being the development of the learning processes and opening opportunities for the child to learn. (Bailey et al, 2006) In 1944 physical education was established for its â€Å"educational value† (Mackenzie, ... ...es an increase in heart rate for a sustained amount of time is therefore the most beneficial towards children’s learning, however Dwyer et al (2001) found that although boys did benefit from this higher impact vigorous activity, girls benefited the most from calming, lower impact activities that involved stretching and cross-body co-ordination such as yoga. Smith (2001) backs this in the exercise programme ‘Move It Brain Breaks’ where some of the exercises do not require an increased heart rate, but activities such as ‘stretchers’ and ‘lateralizers’ which involve the use of brain and body functions which are not naturally used together; as in Brain Gym () exercises. Smith (2001) suggests that particularly ‘lateralizers’ should be part of the everyday teaching repertoire to balance children, and co-ordinate their brain and body before learning. (Smith, 2001:11).

Jack Kilby: Inventor of the Microchip :: essays research papers fc

Jack Kilby: Inventor of the Microchip Many people living in this fast-paced, globally-connected world often take for granted the amount of technology that goes into the little â€Å"gadgets† they love. They also do not often think about the people that made this technology possible. Throughout history, there have been only a handful of persons that have truly altered the way in which a society operates and lives. Jack Kilby’s invention of the monolithic integrated circuit, or better known as the microchip, gave birth to a new technological field of modern microelectronics. His ingenious work at Texas Instruments over forty-five years ago, was a breakthrough that has led to the â€Å"sophisticated high-speed computers and large-capacity semiconductor memories of today’s information age.† Born on November 8, 1923 in Jefferson City, Missouri, Jack Kilby was a determined intellectual. After receiving a B.S. degree in Electrical Engineering from the University of Illinois, Mr. Kilby decided to get his M.S. in the same field from the University of Wisconsin. He then began his career in Milwaukee in 1947, working in the Centralab Division of Globe Union Inc. â€Å"developing ceramic-base, silk-screen circuits for consumer electronic products.† 1958 was significant for Jack Kilby due to the fact that he began working in Dallas for Texas Instruments (TI) early that year. During the summer of that same year, using borrowed materials, Mr. Kilby envisioned and constructed the very first electronic circuit in which â€Å"all of the components, both active and passive, were fabricated in a single piece of semiconductor material half the size of a paper clip.† On September 12, 1958, history was made in a TI laboratory after he successfully demonstrated the ability of that first microchip. Mr. Kilby showed the TI management a piece of germanium with an oscilloscope attached, turned it on, and the oscilloscope demonstrated a continuous sine wave, â€Å"proving that his integrated circuit worked.† Jack Kilby proceeded to â€Å"pioneer military, industrial, and commercial applications of microchip technology.† He was head of the teams that built both the first military system and the first computer featuring integrated circuits. Mr. Kilby then went on to co-invent the hand-held calculator. However, in 1970, he wanted some time off to develop his own inventions, so he decided to take a leave of absence from TI. He began to investigate the idea that silicon technology could be used to generate electrical power from sunlight. He would later incorporate this function into handheld calculator technology.

State of California versus Frankenstein :: Argumentative Persuasive Mary Shelley Essays

State of California versus Frankenstein Ladies and gentleman of the jury we are gathered here today to highlight the injustices, prove the innocence, and consequently save the life of a man that has been dealt the wrong hand since even before his existence. A man who with no power of his own, was put into situations that forced him to behave the way that he did. His actions were just mirror reflections of the behavior that he was taught, and seeing how he was perceived as being a monster rather than human, he soon began to fulfill the role of the monster he was seen as. Mr. Frankenstein had not the power nor was he given the ability to control his own actions. He has been made a victim of circumstance. In conclusion, I will try to prove that Frankenstein should not be held personally or morally responsible for his actions, because forces outside his control caused his criminality. < Doctor Victor Frankenstein once stated "A new species will bless me as its creator and source: many happy and excellent natures would owe their being to me" (Shelley 223). Yet, Dr. Victor did not think about the consequences of his actions, he did not think about the effect it would have on his creation. He was just empowered by the vision of creating a human being. "His sole purpose of infusing life into an inanimate body" (Shelley 233). Dr. Victor gathered the material he needed to create Frankenstein. Yet, he never thought of the negative aspects that his creation would inherit due to its degenerate body parts. First, let's talk about the neurophysiological aspect. Frankenstein was given an abnormal brain, the brain of a criminal. To the Doctor's defense he did not know that the stolen brain was one that belonged to a criminal;however, it is very possible that the new brain recipient inherited the anti-social behavior possessed by the former. A second point worth noting is Frankensteins' genetic makeup. The massive abnormalities in which Frankenstein has had to endure reflects his behavior. For example, his unproportionate body parts his hands longer than a normal human being. This mans' unusual height, eight feet tall is proportionally larger and stronger than any other man. A figure covered by many scars that bond each piece of raw material that was used to create Frankenstein. And that face, the face of an outcast, which whenever seen, frightens any creature around, whether it be human or animal.

The Importance of Corporate Social Responsibility

Corporate Social Responsibility Being a company that prospers is very much different than a company that is consistently following a guided work ethic while making revenue. Companies these days may participate in under the table schemes or anything to make that extra buck. Very a few industries willingly follow corporate social responsibility. Corporate social responsibility (which will now be referred to as CSR) is a business firm’s intention, beyond its legal and economic obligations, to do the right things and act in ways that are good for society. Dell Inc. is a showcase example of companies that oblige by CSR.Not only do they willingly do right by others, they were named Newsweek’s 2010 Greenest Company in America. Almost everything they use from building to shipping is completely recyclable. They ship and package everything in material made out of bamboo called â€Å"mushroom packaging. † This sort of packaging is very durable and has the density to protect any heavy items in need of shipping. Mushroom packaging is very unique in the sense that it is grown and not manmade. Not only are they environment friendly in their use of the highly compostable mushroom packaging, they also give back.Dell knows how important it is to donate to charity and they want to create a relationship with whom they are donating money to. As stated in the article, â€Å"Trisa Thompson, VP of Corporate Responsibility, offered that making a determination about which charitable, non-profit organizations to work with internationally must be undertaken with great care†¦.. ‘These are long-term relationships, not short-term, and need to be entered into carefully and with sufficient due diligence. ’† Dell likes to donate 1% of all pre-tax revenue to charities that support children and education.This company truly understands what it means to be successful. Rather than classifying successful as a company that earns substantial net income, the y also put emphasis on using their power and money into making the world a better place. CSR is something every single company should take interest in but some CEO’s just don’t care for lack of a better word. They want to keep every penny for themselves. Cited Source 1) http://businessexecution. wordpress. com/2011/09/06/dell-issues-2011-corporate-social-responsibility-report/

Human Rights Act 1998 Essay

â€Å"The HRA 1998 provides powerful protection for individuals in many aspects of their lives.† * To what extent is this statement true? Illustrate your answer by reference to areas of law with which you are familiar. Before 1998, the United Kingdom did not have a piece of document that specified the basic rights of the English people. However, in the year 1950, the United Kingdom Government signed the European Convention on Human Rights, to protect people’s rights from abuses seen under Hitler’s rule, following the Universal Declaration on Human Rights made by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948. Even so, the European Convention on Human Rights had not ratified and incorporated itself into law until 1998 when Parliament enacted the Human Rights Act. The Human Rights Act 1998 states that when judges are deciding cases in which a question about a Convention right has been brought forward, the court must take into account any judgment, decision, declaration or advisory opinion of the European Court of Human Rights. This means that instead of a conflicting decision by the United Kingdom court, the court must follow decisions of the European Court of Human Rights. An example of this was seen in the case of Re Medicaments (No 2), Director General of Fair Trading v Proprietary Association of Great Britain (2001). The Court of Appeal had refused to follow the decision of the Supreme Court in the earlier case of R v Gough on grounds that it was slightly different to decisions of the European Court of Human Rights. Some Convention rights involve the right to life and liberty. Article 2 of the Convention states that the law shall protect everyone’s right to life. It also recognizes that Member States have the right to impose the death penalty to those convicted of particular crimes. Article 3, on the other hand, states that no one shall be tortured or suffer inhumane or degrading treatment or punishment. Moreover, Article 4 declares that slavery is not allowed. Other examples include Article 5, which sets out that everyone has the right to liberty and that no one shall be deprived of it, except where the law allows arrest. In its subsection, the article provides that ‘everyone who is deprived of his liberty by arrest or detention shall be entitled to take proceedings by which the lawfulness of his detention shall be speedily decided by a court’. The Convention rights that cover a person’s right to a fair trial are Article 6 and Article 7. The former states that people have the right to a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time, for both civil and criminal cases. A case that conflicted this Article was the Sander v United Kingdom (2000) case whereby the European Court of Human Rights ruled that a defendant had not a fair trial because a juror was making racist remarks. Article 7, however, states that no one shall be found guilty of a criminal offence if his act was not a crime at the time it was committed. This means that the law may be changed to make acts of the type prohibited criminal offences in future. Nevertheless, it cannot look back to acts that have already been committed and declare them criminal offences. On rights to privacy, Article 8 states that every person has a right to respect his private and family life, his home and his correspondence. Articles 9, 10, 11, 12 and 14, alternatively, provide rights to other freedoms. For example, Article 9 states that everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. Article 10 states that everyone has the right to freedom of expression in the form of words. Article 11 states that people have the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and the freedom to associate with others. Article 12 states that everyone has the right to marry, whereas Article 14 states that all rights and freedom should exist without any discrimination on any ground. The archetypes would be sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, national minority, property, birth or status. However, despite the fact that courts have to read legislation and give it effect in a way which is synchronized with the rights in the European Convention of Human Rights, the Human Rights Act 1998 recognizes that some legislation may be worded in a way that makes it impossible to give effect to the Convention. In such a case, the court has to apply the legislation as it stands but may make a declaration of its incompatibility with the Convention. This was the case in H v Mental Health Review Tribunal (2001) in which it concerned the fact that the burden of proof was on a patient applying for release instead of being on State to justify the continuing the detention of a patient. It was a breach of Article 5 because it involved the liberty of a person. However, the domestic law was incompatible with the Convention. Therefore, the court could not give it effect. It could only declare its incompatibility. Usually, after a declaration of incompatibility is done, the Government will change the law. However, it is unnecessary for the Government to do so. In actuality, if Parliament wishes, it can pass new legislation which conflicts the Convention. This is done by replacing the incompatible Act with a new Act of Parliament. If only a small part is incompatible, a remedial order may be done. This order acts as a statutory instrument, which amends the incompatible provision in order to comply with Convention rights. Such an example would be in the case of A and another v Secretary of State for the Home Department (2004) The Supreme Court had declared that the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was incompatible with the Convention. The Act allowed foreign nationals to be detained without trial indefinitely, where there was suspicion of their involvement in terrorist activity. The Court held that this breached both Article 5, which states the right to liberty, and Article 14, which states that there should be no discrimination on basis of nationality. This forced the Government to change the law and release the detained foreigners, however on strict conditions. The reality of this is that while the Human Rights Act 1998 does indeed protect individuals, its power is fickle and can be overridden at any time. For example, for the Bill of Rights to be entrenched, a requirement of 75% or three quarters majority is needed. However, in the case of the Human Rights Act 1998, only a simple majority of 51 votes is required for the law to be amended or abolished.